Barakhinei

© 1999 by Mark Rosenfelder

Introduction * History Dialects Gender differences
Phonology * Dialectal variations Stress accent Orthography
Sound changes from Caďinor
Morphology * Nominal declension Adjectives Pronouns Numbers Conjugation
Derivational morphology * Nominalizers Adjectivizers Verbalizers
Syntax * Constituent order Noun phrases Articles Case usage 2p pronouns The subjunctive Prepositions Phatic particles Negation Questions Clauses
References * Conventional expressions Calendar Names
Example
Lexicon

Introduction [To Index]

The map is labelled entirely in Barakhinei. Ferediri is Barakhinei for "Verduria". For Verdurian names see the Eretald map.

History [To Index]

A feudal state that had no truck with modernity, Barakhún, unlike Verduria, perceived no need to write its few documents in the vernacular; it produced no literature except official annals and religious exhortations; and trade beyond the shop level was carried out by foreigners, mostly Verdurians. Ironically-- for the Barakhinei are a warlike, male-dominant culture-- it was women who first developed Barakhinei as a written language. Noblewomen were taught to read Caďinor, but were rarely given enough instruction to write fluently in it; at the same time, armies of servants made them the only leisured class in the country. Our first texts (of more than a line or two) are letters from one noblewoman to another.

By the reign of Lombekh (d. 3110), father of Ambekh the Great, women such as Ilitira, Kondên and Tizati were writing romances, poems, and essays in Barakhinei. Within a century they were joined by men; and when the Union of Eleďi and Arašei was accepted in Barakhún (in 3225, more than two centuries after its promulgation in Avéla), Eleďe clerics began preaching in the vernacular, and we begin to find sermons, lives of saints, and devotional manuals in Barakhinei.

It was not till the 3300s that official documents were written in Barakhinei in Barakhún, Hroth, and Mútkün. (Rhânor is a special case; it is too primitive to have official documents; but women and clerics are likely to know how to read.)

The usual spellings of all three of these countries in Almean studies differ from the transliteration used in this chapter, under which they would be Barakhun, Rhoth, and Mutkhun. The accents simply indicate the placement of the stress, which is not indicated in the Barakhinei alphabet; the other variations reflect local dialect pronunciations.

Given this history, it should not be surprising that earlier forms of the language are available only accidently, or via internal reconstruction; and that very few serious scholarly resources exist. The best Barakhinei grammar is that of the University of Verduria (Aluatas Šriftanáei Barahineë); the best native work is the Fisnava Rhuo Barakhinei by Ekuntâl of Sûlekeros.

Dialects [To Index]

• Western (têl rhu), including Barakhún, Rhânor, and the Barakhinei-speaking portions of the Western Wild.
• Central (êrrê rhu), including Mútkün and the northernmost principality of Hroth.
• Southern (âr rhu), comprising the remaining six princedoms of Hroth.

Gender differences [To Index]

• Women palatalize more consonants: n, l before front vowels become nh, lh. Their sh tends to be alveolo-palatal s' (and th before a stop), their ch becomes ts, and their kh is pronounced [ç]. Men, on the other hand, tend to nasalize vowels before -n or -m, to weaken unstressed vowels, and to strongly aspirate their stops.
• Women avoid the dative, using a + the accusative instead.
• Women always use the second person pronoun lê, while men substitute titles for peers and superiors.
• Women use a wider variety of synthetic verb tenses, and (speaking to peers or superiors) use the subjunctive in place of the imperative.
• There are a number of distinctive particles used by one sex or the other, and different meanings for lexical items. Women are much more likely to use Verdurian loanwords; men more likely to use reborrowings from Caďinor.

Phonology [To Index]

[f] and [v] are allophones, [v] appearing only intervocalically; but they are spelled with two different symbols, and Verdurian loan-words retain an initial V, which some attempt to pronounce correctly.

Rather than a random collection of ten vowels, consider the vowel system as consisting of two series of five vowels each, the tense vowels i e a o u and a lax series î ê â ô û. Alternations between tense and lax vowels are common in Barakhinei morphology.

Final î, and post-stress û, are pronounced [^e]. Other vocalic reductions of unstressed syllables are characteristic of Southern dialect and of male speech.

Dialectal variations [To Index]

In addition, ô tends to lower to [a] (pushing a to [a]); thus Verdurian borrowings like iladil, ďarim from ilôdil, dhorind.

Southern dialect is known for pronouncing rh as an unvoiced aspirated r-- thus the spelling Hroth, spelled Rhoth in the transliteration used here. (This spelling also hints at the southern spelling rc for northern rh.)

It's also known for the deaffrication of ch to palatal c, the fricativization of intervocalic velar stops (k --> kh, g to gh),

Stress accent [To Index]

• Epenthetic vowels are not stressed: chitor, erêsûl
• Roots ending in -l, -kh, or -th are often unstressed: êshtôl, dorôth, ezarkh
• The derivational suffixes -nor, -il, -el, diminutive -ek, and the -dêsht in powers of ten are never stressed: ekunor, iladil, êndel, hedêsht, kêntek
• The stress is generally on the same syllable as the cognate CAďINOR or Verdurian word: cf. MACTANA, mashtan, mažtana; KIBRU, kibor, civru; VENERA, feter, ventra

Stress is not indicated orthographically.

Orthography [To Index]

The alphabet inherited from Caďinor was:

For a period after the fall of the empire, writing was not used in the mountain lands, except inscribed on stone, or carved into wood. The characters were adapted to be easily produced using these methods:

When paper and ink were once again available, the letters were adapted once more to the medium, and a distinctive decorated mountain hand emerged.

(The characters shown are based on contemporary Barakhinan scribal handwriting. The letterforms are the same in the other Barakhinei lands, though the details differ. ) The names for the letters are

u a ô ê i êk
pe kê bê gê dakh
sa thê zash tê dhakh
ra khôth le
mê fa nhê fek hê

The letters marked <k c> have the values /q k/ and are used as such when writing Caďinor or Verdurian. Only the second character, <c>, is used for the /k/ of Barakhinei.

Digraphs are used for the new sounds that have developed since Caďinor times. The second character in ch nh lh (ik) derives from a small i; the second character in sh and the middle stroke in rh derive from h and indicate aspiration; both are called hêkek. (rh is considered a digraph, and indeed in Hroth it is written rc.)

The new vowels û â ô ê î are indicated with a diacritic (a bazêl 'lowering'), equivalent to the Verdurian mole, and likewise derived from a miniature u.

The usual Roman transliteration of Barakhinei preserves one of the chief features of the alphabet, the use of digraphs. Admittedly, however, the transcription is not entirely accurate-- we should write dh th kh as single characers, as in the preferred transliteration of Verdurian; and perhaps we should write kj nj lj rather than ch nh lh. On the other hand, the transliteration emphasizes the difference from Verdurian, reminding us that (say) čun and chund, hum and khum, zon and zôn look quite different to Almeans: .

The ö ü of Central dialect are written o u (i.e. without a diacritic), or sometimes o^e uⁱ.

The numbers have been adapted from those of Verdurian (except for 7, formed from 6 by analogy).

There are no capital letters, and only two punctuation marks, one used for a pause and one to mark the end of a sentence. There is no exclamation mark or question mark. Words are separated by spaces, but pronouns and particles are not always separated from adjoining words.

Sound changes from Caďinor [To Index]

Morphology [To Index]

Nominal declension [To Index]

Masculine						hints
s.nom	eli	lônd	âshta
s.acc	eli	lônd	âsht			always = root
s.dat	elia	lônda	âshta			always -a
s.gen	elio	lôndo	âshto			always -o
pl.nom	eliri	lôndi	âshtâ			eli differs from lônd only in pl. root
pl.acc/dat	elirî	lôndî	âshtî			always -î
pl.gen	elirich	lôndich	âshtach			= pl.nom laxed + ch
Neuter
s.nom	kal	shkor	nôshti	manu	shpâ	in s., shkor follows kal
s.acc	kalu	shkoru	nôshti	man	shpâ	acc = dat exc. for manu
s.dat	kalu	shkoru	nôshti	manu	shpâ
s.gen	kalo	shkoro	nôshtio	mano	shpach	all end in -o, like masc.
pl.nom	kalo	shkoru	nôkchu	mani	shpao	in pl., shkor follows nôshti
pl.acc/dat	kaloi	shkorî	nôkchî	manî	shpaoi	in oblique forms,
pl.gen	kaloch	shkorich	nôkchich	manich	shpaoch	kal is odd man out
Feminine
s.nom	chir	nor	medhi	elorê	kabrâ
s.acc	chira	nore	medhi	elore	kabra
s.dat	chirê	norê	medhiê	elorê	kabrê	always -ê
s.gen	chirach	norech	medhich	elorech	kabrach	= acc. + ch
pl.nom	chirâ	norê	medhiê	eloriê	kabrachâ
pl.acc/dat	chirêi	norêi	medhia	eloria	kabracha
pl.gen	chirech	norech	medhiech	eloriech	kabrachech	always -ech

The most important factor in the historical development of the declensions in Barakhinei was the loss of the final consonant or vowel in almost every case form. Subsequent analogical change has reversed some mergers and brought some of the declensions closer together.

To decline a noun with confidence, you need to know its gender and its plural. The former is always indicated in the lexicon, and the latter when necessary.

(Knowing the Caďinor etymon almost always does the trick as well. However, beware of a few words (e.g. piabor 'grandfather') which have shifted to a more 'logical' gender. The Verdurian cognate will identify feminine nouns, but won't distinguish masculine and neuter.)

• Masculines like eli have lost a final consonant, which is restored in the plural. The lexicon indicates this: e.g. elorî (ni) 'king' → s.nom. elorî, pl.nom. elorini.
• For neuters ending in a consonant it is necessary to know if the plural ends in -o or -u. Plurals in -o are more than twice as common as those in -u; only the latter are indicated. So the lexicon has entries kal and shkor (u).
• Likewise, for feminines ending in a consonant, plurals in -â, which are very common, are not indicated in the lexicon; plurals in -ê are.

Adjectives [To Index]

	I Declension
	'south'			'north'
	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.
s.nom	âr	âr	âr	na	na	na
s.acc	âr	âru	âra	na	nanu	nana
s.dat	âra	âru	ârê	nana	nanu	nanê
s.gen	âro	âro	ârach	nano	nano	nanach
pl.nom	âri	âro	ârâ	nani	nano	nanâ
pl.acc/dat	ârî	ârî	ârêi	nanî	nanî	nanêi
pl.gen	ârich	ârich	ârech	nanich	nanich	nanech
	II Declension			III Declension
	'calm'			'round'
	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.
s.nom	gelê	gele	gelê	ori	ori	ori
s.acc	gelê	gelê	gele	or	ori	ori
s.dat	gela	gelê	gelê	ori	ori	oriê
s.gen	gelo	gelo	gelech	orio	orio	orich
pl.nom	gelê	gele	gelê	ori	oru	oriê
pl.acc/dat	gelî	gelê	gelêi	orî	orî	oria
pl.gen	gelêch	gelech	gelech	orich	orich	oriech

• Adjectives of the I declension, whose citation form normally ends in a consonant, decline exactly like eli, shkor, chir.

  For some I adjectives, such as na, the final consonant is lost in the s. nom. and the m. s. acc. In the lexicon this root is cited as na (n), indicating the consonant to be restored.

• In the III declension, whose citation form ends in -i, the neuters and feminines match the corresponding nominal declensions (nôshti, medhi). The masculine departs from the neuter only to follow the most common m. patterns (minimal form in s.acc; plural in -i).

• Those of the II declension, whose citation form ends in -ê, don't strictly follow any nominal class, though they follow the usual patterns (see 'hints' under Nominal declension). Note that 9 of 21 endings are -ê, and -e and -ech repeat three times each!

There are two adjectives in -â (mudrâ, shkrâ). These follow the patterns for nouns in -â; the masculine forms are identical to the neuters.

Adverbs are expressed by conjoining the feminine s. nom. form of the adjective to meli 'way': iziêth meli 'importantly'; lebê → lebe meli 'newly'; rochi meli 'crazily'.

Pronouns [To Index]

Personal pronouns [To Index]

	nom.	gen.	acc.	dat.
I	sû	(eri)	sêth	sû
thou	lê	(leri)	êk	lê
this one	ât	âti	âtô	âta
that one	tot	toti	tô	tota
we	ta	(tandê)	tâ	tao
you	mukh	(mundê)	mî	mî
they	kâ	(kandê)	kâ	kâ
refl.		zei	zêth	zeu
refl. pl.		zai	zaa	zau
who/what	kêt	kêti	kêtô	kêta

Ât tota fetâ chî tot shkrif chî ât laodâ oloka mônê.
He1 said to him2 that he2 knew he1 would get sick

Eri, leri, tandê, mundê, and kandê are regular adjectives, and must be declined as such: eriê nagâ 'my feet', tando firakho 'of our enemy'.

Reflexive pronouns are used (much as in Verdurian) both for true reflexive uses (zêth shkrivê 'to know oneself') and to make transitive verbs intransitive (zêth eterê 'to run by itself').

Other pronouns [To Index]

which	kê	this	âl	that	il
who, what	kêt	this one	ât	that one	tot
where	kedi	here	âsht	there	kêsht
when	ked	now	âl khor	then	il dêna
every, all	shkei	some	nhê	none	sî
everyone	shpiê	someone	thizi	no one	nikt
everywhere	shkei nor	somewhere	nhê nor	nowhere	sî nor
always	shkei dêna	sometimes	nhê dêna	never	sî dêna
how	kênz
how much	shkol
why	poche

âl, il, shkei, thizi are declined as regular adjectives; nhê, kê and sî are invariable.

No animate/inanimate distinction is made with these pronouns: kêt means both 'who' and 'what'; thizi means both 'someone' and 'something'.

The locative pronouns have dative forms kediê, âshta, kêshta, used only by men.

Numbers [To Index]

	digit	x10	ordinal	fraction
1	a	dêsht	perê	perê
2	dhu	tedêsht	torê	mechî
3	di	medêsht	merê	dinga
4	pao	chedêsht	chêtnê	barga
5	panth	pandêsht	pantê	pantê thur
6	sêsht	sêdêsht	sêshtê	...
7	khâp	hedêsht	khâpê
8	hoch	hodêsht	hôkri
9	nhêbor	nhêdêsht	nhêbri
10	dêsht	sekath	dêshti

Numbers up to four are declined as regular adjectives (dhunâ nagâ 'two feet', paorich boboch 'of four fools'); higher numbers, including combinations, are invariable (sêsht genî 'to six clans'). The ordinal numbers are also regular adjectives.

Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by conjoining dêsht plus the digit name, which receives the accent: dêshta, dêshtdhu, etc. The only spelling changes are 16 dêsêsht and 18 dêshtoch. Other two-digit combinations, however, are formed as conjoined phrases: 21 tedêsht êr a; 54 pandêsht e pao; 78 hedêsht e hoch.

Higher numbers are fairly straightforward: 3487 = di mel pao sekath hodêsht e khâp.

Conjugation [To Index]

(There are enough mergers that the verb form alone does not determine person/number. In Rhânor and in southern Hroth, pronouns are generally included for all persons; elsewhere, only for second person.)

PRESENT

	elirê live	rikha look at	lelê see	bêshti move	habê wear	Hints
I.sg.	elira	rikhâ	lelâ	bêch	hap
II.sg.	elirû	rikhê	lelê	bêshtû	habû	either -û or -ê
III.sg.	elirê	rikhê	lelê	bêshti	habê	almost always -ê
I.pl.	eliru	rikha	lela	bêkchu	habu	either -u or -a
II.pl.	eliru	rikhu	lelu	bêkchu	habu	always -u
III.pl.	elirôn	rikhôn	lelên	bêshtîn	habun	always -Vn
	grochê mill	foka invoke	nochê squeeze	faichi leave	klachê beat
I.sg.	groga	fokâ	nogâ	faok	klak
II.sg.	grochû	fochê	nochê	faochû	klachû
III.sg.	grochê	fochê	nochê	faichi	klachê
I.pl.	grogu	foka	nocha	faoku	klagu
II.pl.	grogu	foku	nochu	faoku	klagu
III.pl.	grogôn	fokôn	nochên	faichîn	klagun

Sound change has affected Caďinor verbal roots ending in c or g quirkily enough that it's worth giving a full set of examples, with phonetic changes highlighted.

Bêshti shows a more restricted sound change: -sht- changes to -kch- before -u (not -û).

A Caďinor -u- is fronted before a front vowel; this accounts for the alternation faich/faok. This always affects the III.sg; in the rikha conjugation it affects the IIsg as well (chura → chirê); in lelê conjugation, it affects all but the I.sg. (In Central dialect it remains rounded: 'leave' is faüchi.)

In the bêshti and habê conjugations only, a final -d, -t, or -p in the verbal root generally changes to -dh, -th, or -v/f in the I.sg. and plural forms: sidê 'offer' → sidh, sidû, sidê, sidhu, sidhu, sidhun.

Finally, note the devoicing in hap, klak.

PAST

	elirê	rikha	lelê	bêshti	habê
I.sg.	eliri	rikhi	leli	bêshti	habi	always -i
II.sg.	elirî	rikhi	leli	bêshtê	habê
III.sg.	elir	rikhâ	lelâ	bêshtâ	hap	-â or nothing
I.pl.	elirê	rikhu	lelu	bêshtê	habê
II.pl.	elirê	rikhê	lelê	bêshtê	habê	always -ê
III.pl.	elirîn	rikhîn	lelîn	bêshtên	habên	always -(ê,î)n
	grochê	foka	nochê	faichi	klachê
I.sg.	grochi	fochi	nochi	faichi	klachi
II.sg.	grochî	fochi	nochi	faichê	klachê
III.sg.	grok	fokâ	nogâ	faokâ	klach
I.pl.	grogê	foku	nogu	faichê	klachê
II.pl.	grogê	fokê	nogê	faichê	klachê
III.pl.	grochîn	fochîn	nochîn	faichên	klachên

In Proto-Eastern the past tense was formed by a change in stem vowel; this can still be seen in Barakhinei, in the substitution of front vowels for the back vowels in the present tense.

Again, alternations of Caďinor roots in -c, -g are given; and note the devoicing in hap and grok.

The -u- fronting (faich/faok) affects almost all forms in the past tense, sparing only the endings -â, -u and the III.sg for elirê verbs.

The -sht- → -kch change we met with bêshti in the present tense here affects only forms ending in -u, while -sht → -ch in the III.sg for the first -ê verbs: têshtê → IIIsg têch.

In the elirê conjugation only, a root ending in -d, -t, -p has a III.sg. ending in -dh, -th, or -f: rhedê 'believe' → rhedh 'he believed'. Note that this affects a different conjugation than the corresponding change in the present.

PAST ANTERIOR

	elirê	rikha	lelê	bêshti	habê
I.sg.	elirri	rikhri	lelri	bêshtri	habri
II.sg.	elirrî	rikhri	lelri	bêshtrê	habrê
III.sg.	elirêr	rikhrâ	lelrâ	bêshtrâ	habêr
I.pl.	elirrê	rikhru	lelru	bêshtrê	habrê
II.pl.	elirrê	rikhrê	lelrê	bêshtrê	habrê
III.pl.	elirrîn	rikhrîn	lelrîn	bêshtrên	habrên

The past anterior tense (used for actions taking place before the time referred to by the past tense) is formed by adding -r- to the verb root, followed by the past tense endings. The exception is the III.sg. endings for elirê and klachê verbs: null in the past tense, -êr in the past anterior.

The past anterior endings are always stressed.

No root alternations are found in this tense.

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

	elirê	rikha	lelê	bêshti	habê
I.sg.	elirta	rikhmâ	lelmâ	bêshtech	habech
II.sg.	elirtê	rikhmê	lelmê	bêshtech	habech
III.sg.	elirtê	rikhmê	lelmê	bêshti	habti
I.pl.	elirtu	rikhma	lelma	bêshchu	habchu
II.pl.	elirtu	rikhmu	lelmu	bêshchu	habchu
III.pl.	elirtôn	rikhmôn	lelmên	bêshtîn	habtîn

The subjunctive, derived from the Caďinor remote static present, is formed by adding -t- or -m- to the verb root, then the subjunctive tense endings. For all but the highlighted forms, these are the same as the present tense endings. Also note that -tu changes to -chu in the I.pl and II.pl for the bêshti and habê conjugations only.

In speech, the endings devoice the ending of the verbal root (habchu → hapchu), but this is not reflected in writing.

Some verbs have a distinct subjunctive root, noted in the lexicon. E.g. laoda 'go' → subj. I.sg. lodâ, not *laodmâ.

PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

	elirê	rikha	lelê	bêshti	habê
I.sg.	elirka	rikhnâ	lelnâ	bêshtir	habir
II.sg.	elirchê	rikhnê	lelnê	bêshtir	habir
III.sg.	elirchê	rikhnê	lelnê	bêshtri	habri
I.pl.	elirku	rikhna	lelna	bêshtru	habru
II.pl.	elirku	rikhnu	lelnu	bêshtru	habru
III.pl.	elirkôn	rikhnôn	lelnên	bêshtrîn	habrîn

The past subjunctive is formed like the present subjunctive, but using a different infix: -k/ch- for the elirê conjugation, -n- for the rikha and lelê conjugations, -r- for the others. In the latter, note the special ending in the I.sg and II.sg.

IMPERATIVE

	elirê	rikha	lelê	bêshti	habê
II.sg.	elir	rikh	lel	bêch	hap
II.pl.	elirêl	rikhel	lelel	bêkchu	habu
III.sg.	elira	rikha	lela	bêkcha	haba
III.pl.	eliran	rikhan	lelan	bêkchan	haban

The II.sg. imperative is usually just the verb root, with some irregularities. The bêshti and habê forms are the same as the present tense I.sg. The rikha forms show the c,g → ch softening: foka → foch; they and the lelê forms also turn a -u- into an -i-: chura → chir. Final -b, -g are devoiced in all conjugations.

The II.pl. imperative in the bêshti and habê forms are the same as the present tense forms. For elirê verbs, it's the same as the present III.sg. plus -l; for rikha and lelê verbs it's the same as the past I.sg. plus -l.

The III.sg. forms all show the root alteration u →i (chura → chira). Final -d, -t, -p in the root become -dh, -th, -v. The III.pl. forms simply add an -n onto this.

Pronouns are never used with the imperative.

PARTICIPLES

	elirê	rikha	lelê	bêshti	habê
past	elirêl	rikhu	lelu	bêkchu	klachêl
present	eliril	rikhê	lelê	bêshti	klachê

Participles are regular adjectives; those ending in -u have an oblique root -ul-.

Root alternations can be deduced from the first vowel of the ending: e.g. foka → past foku, present fochê.

Participles can be used (appropriately declined) wherever an adjective can be used: dôriê honiê 'sleeping women'; kekulo pono 'of the killed warrior'; raolu kâbol 'cooked onion'.

Analytic tenses [To Index]

The present participle gives a progressive or continual meaning; the past participle gives a perfective (but not a passive) meaning (equivalent to the Verdurian ya).

Rikhâ ila dezi. I see the bridge.

Sâ rikhê ila dezi.
I am looking at the bridge; I often look at the bridge.

Sâ rikhu ila dezi.
I have looked at the bridge; I just looked at the bridge.

Lê klachê il rhez. You beat the dog.

Lê sê klachêl il rhez.
You were beating the dog; you always beat your dog.

Lê sê klachê il rhez.
You have beaten your dog; you've finished beating your dog.

Irregular verbs [To Index]

	eza 'to be'
	pres.	past.	past ant.	subj pres	subj past
I.sg.	sâ	fuch	firi	êshta	êshka
II.sg.	sê	fuch	firi	êshtê	êshkê
III.sg.	ê	fâ	furâ	êshtê	êshkê
I.pl.	eza	fu	furu	êshta	êshka
II.pl.	ezu	fuê	furê	êshtu	êshku
III.pl.	sôn	fûn	firiôn	êshtôn	êshkôn
	epeza 'can'		foli 'want'	lhibê 'love'	kedhê 'bear'
	present	past	present	present	present	past
I.sg.	ûzâ	ûzi	ful	lhua	kedhâ	kedhi
II.sg.	ûzê	ûzi	ful	lhû	kedhê	kedhi
III.sg.	epê	epâ	fut	lhu	kedhu	kiâ
I.pl.	epeza	ûzu	folu	lhubu	kedha	kedhu
II.pl.	epezu	ûzê	folu	lhubu	kedhu	kedhê
III.pl.	ûzôn	ûzîn	folîn	lôn	kên	kedhîn
	nhê 'be born'	shkrivê 'know'	shtanê 'come'	fâli 'need'	hizi 'provide'	oi 'hear'
	present	present	present	present	present	present
I.sg.	nhe	shkriva	shtâ	fâl	huz	oh
II.sg.	ni	shkri	shtê	fêl	hu	fi
III.sg.	ni	shkri	shtê	fêl	hut	fit
I.pl.	nheza	shkrivu	shtana	fâlu	hizu	ou
II.pl.	nhezu	shkrivu	shtanu	fâlu	hizu	ou
III.pl.	nhên	shkrivôn	shtôn	fâlîn	hizîn	oîn

In addition, twenty or so verbs (and their derivatives) have an irregular subjunctive stem, indicated in the dictionary. For instance, laoda 'go' has the subjunctive stem lod-. So instead of forming the present subjunctive *laodmâ, *laodmê... it's lodâ, lodê, lodê, loda, lodu, lodôn; and the past subjunctive is not *laodnâ... but lodi, lodi, lodâ, lodu, lodê, lodîn.

Derivational morphology [To Index]

Nominalizers

-ech Nominalization of action verbs and some adjectives (Caď. -eio, -eia):

krechê 'eat' → krechech 'eating'
gelê 'calm' → gelech 'calm'

-ek Another nominalizer (Caď. -eca):

froê 'cold' → froek 'coldness'
klachê 'bright' → klachek 'brightness'
laoda 'go' → laodek 'departure'

-ant Quality, state, operation, or art (Caď. -antos):

zobant 'sorcery'
pidant 'fatherhood'
chirolant 'complexity'

-orî Person in charge (Caď. -orion):

klâtand 'seminary' → klâtandorî 'dean'

-u Associated person (Caď. past participle -ul):

klâtandu 'seminarian'
kôn 'money' → kônu 'rich man'
redêl 'womanhood ceremony' → redêlu 'maiden'.
These decline like the 1st declension adjective na, adding -l- where it adds -n-.

-êl Materials, result (Caď. -el):

habê 'wear' → habêl 'clothes'
redi → redêl 'womanhood ceremony'
kireza 'question' → kirezêl 'question'

-el Associated object or action (Caď. -ile):

roi 'cheat' → rolel 'trick'
associated noun:
lan 'flax' → lanel 'linen'

-ek Diminutive:

rhezek 'little dog'
honek 'little woman'
In Hroth and southern Mútkün, -ilh-, from Cuêzi, is seen: rhezilh, honilhê

-nor Place (Caď. -naure):

Rafnor 'Rau jungle'
ekunor 'princedom'
Rhânor 'borderland'

hon- female:

honkônz 'female cousin'
honhêru 'nun'
honursh 'female bear'

-ê wife of an official or noble:

shkokh 'duke' → shkokhê 'duchess'

Adjectivizers

-hmê (Caď. -smes):

gor 'sense' → gorêhmê 'sensible'
firakh 'enemy' → firakhmê 'opposed'
honê 'woman' → hommê 'womanly'

-izê (Caď. -ises):

Eledha → Eledhizê 'Eledhe'
chir 'body' → chirizê 'physical'

-il A more formal adjectivization (borrowed from Caďinor):

elorî → eloril 'royal'
ilôd 'silver' → ilôdil 'silvery'

-ei Geographic adjectives:

Barakhinei; Rhânorei

bu- Not (Caď. bu-):

buhommê 'unwomanly'; bufolu 'unwanted'
Becomes bi- before a front vowel:
bichiroli 'uncomplicated', bilerchê 'unhappy'

sî- Without:

sîkeram 'shameless'; lelê
'seeing' → sîlelê 'blind'

Verbalizers

-ati Use (a part of the body); also general depreciative (Caď. -atir):

doti 'finger' → dotati 'point'
pili 'eyelash' → pilati 'blink'
piru 'alcoholic drink' → pirati 'get wasted'

-inzê Prolongative/Intensive (Caď. -inser):

nenê 'talk' → neninzê 'talk your leg off'
chora 'flow, cry' → chorinzê 'bawl, gush'

rên- Again (Caď. ren-):

laoda 'go' → renlaoda 'return'
lelê 'see' → renlelê 'see again'

-vashê Causative (Caď. fasc- 'do'):

kêshkê 'big' → kêshkêvashê 'enlarge, grow'
shkôrê 'dark' → shkôrêvashê 'darken'

Syntax [To Index]

Constituent order [To Index]

Ili ekuni dezdîn lebê elorî.
The princes selected a new king.
Honê sîkeram rizundâ âla foela.
A shameless woman wrote this letter.

Il lebê elorî dezdîn ili ekuni.
The new king was selected by the princes.
Âla foela rizundâ honê sîkeram.
This letter was written by a shameless woman.

Pronominal objects are normally placed before a conjugated verb, but cliticized after an infinitive.

Il shkokh shkri purho zei shkenhêi.
The governor truly knows his chickens.

Il shkokh kâ shkri purho.
The governer truly knows them.

Ât fut shkrivêkâ.
He wants to know them.

Lê laodâ fetê pomaire.
I'll tell you a story.

Âto tota di. I gave it to him/her.
Tot sû di! Give me that!

Noun phrases [To Index]

âl bop that fool
kaokh feredê a green lizard
kôn eri my money
têrsê il chuz all that shit
il kân glini felachach eri the long pen of my aunt
dhuni poni thainê two left-handed warriors
il ebdûn khip dezi the troll under the bridge

Articles [To Index]

As the demonstratives have not completed their transition to articles, it is not surprising that certain English article usages do not occur in Barakhinei. In general il can be used as an article only when the referent has been explicitly mentioned ('The king is here. I hate the [il] king.') or, in speech, when it is present. A reference by implication won't do. Thus we can say 'I visited the palace. The king was there.' In Barakhinei one must say Elorî fâ kêsht, literally, 'King was there.'

Il should not be used as an article in genitive expressions: il midor chinach 'the mother of the bride' (not *ilach chinach).

Case usage [To Index]

Il elorî badhâ ila elore.
The king hit the queen.

Il elorê badhâ zei giru.
The queen hit the horse.

Il gir badhâ ila kôshka.
The horse hit the cat.

Di il shkuchua âdhechua eri.
I gave the pig to my church. [male]

Di il shkuchua a âdhechu er.
[female]

Il klâtandu laodê mashtanê.
The priest is going to the city. [male]

Il klâtandu laodê a mashtana.
[female]

Il salhê naku laodê a kelere.
The dirty man is heading for the river.

Il tren letâ tra kôrke.
The turtle flew across the canyon.

Dom eri ê tra kelere.
My house is across the river.

Dom eri ê tra kelerê.
[same, for male pedants]

The genitive is used for possessives: hôrt elorîo 'the king's toe'. Note that declinable possessive adjectives, not pronominal genitives, are used for most pronouns: sinor eri 'my mother-in-law'; genitive sinorach orich; plural sinorâ ori; pl. acc. sinorêi orî, etc.

In expressions involving a superior in rank ("the boy's master"), the inferior does not appear in the genitive, but in the dative (in male speech, or using 3s pronouns) or a + accusative (in female speech):

pidi ekuna the prince's father [male speech]
pidi a ekun [female speech]
pidi âta his father (he = the prince)

medh ekuno the prince's son
medh âti his son

Second person pronouns [To Index]

Il shkokh ful nhê fin?
Would you (lit., the governor) like some wine?

Il klâtandu sîk amêti ibor?
You (the priest) didn't bring the book?

Moru duzorech tekê dorovê?
Your (the mayoress's) husband is fine?

Note that lê or a title is almost always explicitly inserted, except with imperatives, since the verb endings alone do not always distinguish second from first or third person. (Only one lê is necessary in a multi-verb sentence, however.)

(As a corollary, first and third person subject pronouns are not necessary, and are included only for emphasis or contrast, or when conjoined.)

The subjunctive [To Index]

Ful chî kir eri olôntmâ.
I want my wife to be sorry.

Ditt chî rênshtanmê.
I doubt that she'll come back.

Laodê noê? Nozê.
Is it going to rain? It might rain.

Lê roi in gâtûta, lê lodê trai.
If you cheat [lit., you cheating] at dice, you will die.

Il elorî sîk ezê in dom, ât fâ ku mashke âti.
If the king is not [lit., not being] at home, he is with his mistress.

Lê roi in gâtûta, lê laodê trai.
Because you're cheating, you're dying.
Il elorî sîk ezê in dom, ât ê ku mashke âti.
The king not being at home, he is (therefore) with his mistress.

Sa tênil naku kêt pêchâ boradhu er.
I am looking for the man who (I know) killed my brother.

Sa tênil naku kêt pêchtri boradhu er.
I am looking for a man who (might have) killed my brother.

Finally, note that women (but not men) use the subjunctive as a polite imperative:

Shtanmê in dom êr azet! Come inside and sit down!
Prenmê nhê dinhe! Have some melon!

Prepositions [To Index]

a	to, at, during	khip	under, below, till
achu	(away) from	ko	near, by, alongside
akh	against	ku	with, alongside, like
ap	using, with	ôn	among, at, within
chint	around	pâkh	almost, like
dichi	for, because of	prêd	before, in front of
et	about	sa	through(out)
horad	despite, although	si	on, on top of, above
im	in, inside	sup	after, following, since
ish	out of; made of	tra	across, over, beyond

Time expressions always use prepositional phrases (unlike Verdurian): a ôntru 'in the morning' (cf. Ver. utron), a mere khora 'at the third hour', sa nôchu 'for a night', khip kâdhue 'till ceďnare', sup il fiêtor 'after that evening'.

Phatic particles [To Index]

• emphasize one's point (m ma, f zêl)
• assert or ask for solidarity (male-to-male bra, female-to-female beler)
• ask a question (m shkê, f pêza)
• express anger (m klât, f kherof)
• express disbelief (m shkebûr, f shkepê)
• offer pity (female zâdhich)
• show lamentation (m kokue, f hozdi)
• express the equivalent of "of course" (m shklel, f lême)
• or "it's nothing" (m/f foli).

Il ekun fâ âlidên glûmu klât!
The prince was a little snot today!
Poche nikt âtô shkechubrâ shkebûr?
Why hasn't anyone strangled him?

Moru eri renlaodâ ish khichena beler.
My husband is back from the front.
Sîk ê hakni ishgrima kerof e fôrim giro ish dhan hozdi.
It's not easy to get blood and horse dung out of wool.

(If you're wondering, queens use female particles, and butches use male ones.)

In origin, most of the particles are worn-down expressions: e.g. the solidary particle bra comes from boradh eri 'my brother'; the lamentative kokue derives from kaoku eza 'we are destroyed'; the compassion particle zâdhich is from hoz âdhich 'the god's mercy'.

If a sentence already has an adverb with pragmatic force (e.g. purho 'certainly', sîmeli 'not at all'), a phatic particle should not be used as well.

The particles listed are those common in northern dialect; they vary between dialects and tend to change over time. Foreigners are not expected to master the nuances.

Negation [To Index]

Sîk krecha ilî chinzikhî.
We didn't eat the gooseberries.

Krecha sî chinzikhî, ak lomî.
It wasn't gooseberries that we ate, but apples.

Questions [To Index]

Il elorê chilorê shkreve?
The queen needs a beer?

Chilorê shkreve shkê?
She needs a beer, does she? (f. pêza)

Il elorê chilormê shkreve?
Does the queen need a beer?

Clauses [To Index]

Rheda chî ezarzh eri sêth roi.
I believe that my steward is cheating me.

Saodor eri ê tênil naku kêt pêchâ boradhu tandê.
My sister is looking for the man who killed our brother.

Sâ kashki akh naku kêtô ukôrbâ boradh tandê.
I am hiding from the man whom our brother insulted.

Chî il elorî ê renê kaokuhmê zêth fichilê.
It's likely that the king is sloshed again.

References [To Index]

Conventional expressions [To Index]

Âdhi eshtûn (ku lê). Lê dan pe/belhu.
(Pagan greetings) The gods be (with you). May they give you peace/glory.

Eledha eshtê ku lê. Lê da pe/belhu.
(Eleďe greetings) Eleď be with you Eleď give you peace/glory.

(m) Lê ê shkê? Kêt shkê? Shtan bra. Az.
(f) Lê ê kêsht pêza? Kêt ê pêza? Shtanmê beler. Azet.
Are you there? Who is it? Come in. Sit down.
(For Shtan bra read Shtan ma (f. zêl) for a visitor of the opposite sex, or one not known very well.)

Kênz shtanê (p)? Dorovê (p). Sîk nhini (p). Mehmê é (p).
How are you? In good health. I'm not complaining. Same ol' same ol'.

Froê shtanê (p). Fôshtre no (p)! Âl adône ê pâkh rot (p).
It's cold out. Damn rain. This room is like ice.

Râdh leri sâ. Fichilâ meli facheka akh lê bra.
I am your servant. I look forward to good fighting with you.

(m) Or. Sîk ma. Epê eza. Sîk shkriva ma. Sîk kirez kirezêlî ilo kêshto klât.
(f) Or zêl. Sîk zêl. Epê eza. Sîk shkriva zêl. Sîk kirezmê kirezêlî ilo kêshto kherof.
Yes. No. Maybe. I don't know. Don't ask such questions.

Achel leri. Mûnite sâ (p). Fuch lerchê. Olontâ (p).
Please. Thank you. You're welcome. Excuse me. I'm sorry.

Subra dêna. Ôterâ lerî âluthî (p). Fichilâ foela beler. Meli facheka bra!
Till tomorrow. I know your virtues. I expect a letter (f/f). Good fighting! (m/m)

( The blessings given as greetings above can also be used when parting. Ôterâ lerî aluthî is a polite salutation for either sex; for men one may substitute lônd 'honor' or zôlant 'strength'.)

Tenî shkolî zônî (shkê/pêza)? Tena tedêsht e pao zônî.
How old are you? I'm 24.

Il khor ê kê (shkê/pêza)? Il khor ê pao shkiredach.
What time is it? It's 4 in the afternoon.

(m) Lê nomê shkê? Êk lhua ma. Leri pidi ê kônu shkê?
(f) Lê nomê kênz pêza? Êk lhua zêl. Leri pidi fâ kônu pêza?
What's your name? I love you. Your father is rich?

Calendar [To Index]

Days of the week		Season	Months of the year
Barakhinei	Verdurian		Barakhinei	Verdurian
kândên	scúreden	demêtri (spring)	olashk	olašu
shkirdên	shirden		rêslek	reli
fidordên	fidren		kirêndôn	cuéndimar
kaldên	calten	âshta (summer)	feorêl	vlerëi
chirdên	zëden		kal	calo
therdên	néronden		rêshkulek	recoltë
kâdhu	ceďnare	kulek (fall)	hak	yag
			gelech	želea
			ishkirêl	išire
		hibreli (winter)	shkor	šoru
			froek	froďac
			bâziand	bešana

The fifth-year leap day, kasten in Verdurian, is kashdên.

Names [To Index]

Pagan names are still normally formed from two name elements, though names of gods, planets, virtues, and plants are also popular. The names are much less stereotyped than in Verdurian or Ismaîn-- there are still several hundred elements in common use, and almost anything in the lexicon is really fair game.

The table below merely gives a few representative samples.

Masculine	Âdhdu	god-given
	Elûtsan	virtue lord
	Girôndkhum	lion guts
	Kûbâkh	righteous core
	Lôndorôth	honor sign
	Parklêkh	mountain fist
	Zôlpon	strong warrior
	Bairel	coyote
	Kehada	emperor Keadau
Feminine	Arksâ	bow woman
	Chivêkeler	lively river
	Elirêli	lovely melody
	Ilôdnôch	silver night
	Klachhanta	bright amber
	Noênhu	rain-born
	Sonachilêl	dream sky
	Idura	longed for
	Kôlef	the heroine Koleva

Masculine			Feminine
Adairi	Akor	Alôda	Alan	Alôdel	Âlu
Ambrizi	Anta	Araz	Ambek	Ambriz+	Amizi
Azena	Banim	Baor	Brinim	Bûzom	Denur
Barda	Beret	Bishberu	Diazam	Ekadit+	Ekin+
Bishbirakh	Brinimi	Chiveya	Epet+	Etech	Etinhi
Dommava	Dula	Echeleda	Feli	Irizam	Izech+
Ekuna	Enach	Enotiva	Kaimeli	Koelibo+	Lair+
Erês	Fiôna	Fisnava	Laled+	Leret+	Leribod+
Irez	Iriand	Keloizi	Luvor+	Muror+	Nhior+
Koelira	Leria	Lodikuna	No+	Olezam	Petinum
Muror	Namazi	Olu	Ridilênd	Ruiz+	Salikhu+
Oraona	Orom	Pomikuna	Siz+	Somezi+	Soren
Remobû	Samirêkh	Saor	Teroneli	Tizati	Ioret
Solezi	Sur	Teronel	Iûr+	Zeli	Zien+
Zelizi	Zid

Example [To Index]

The plays themselves fall into two categories: tales of adventure and romance (mirebeli), often retelling legends of heroes or tales from national history; or social comedies (ridibeli), satires of contemporary nobles, merchants, and clerics. The first are more popular with male audiences, the second with female ones. Troupes are often adept at tailoring a play to their audience, reserving their sharpest satire or frankest treatments of love for an all-female crowd, and toning down caricature and humor when particularly severe lords are in attendance.

Below is an extract from one such play, Lhumudrel by Benhêk of Barakhina, which explores the consequences of crossing gender boundaries; in this extract we see the title character (whose name means 'loves wisdom') inviting herself into a realm of knowledge meant only for men, that of Caďinor and its literature. Her father strenuously objects; though it is significant that he never suggests any alternative occupation-- noblewomen were not expected to work; there were servants for that. The consequences will later involve a flight from her husband-to-be, in disguise as a male. She falls in with, and eventually in love with, a wandering scholar-soldier.

There is a happy if implausible ending: the scholar turns out to be a lord, and her fiancé. Thanks to the structure of the play, Benhêk can express some fairly radical notions about women's worth, and freely satirize the prejudices of men-- the conventional ending will smooth any feathers that have been ruffled.

Benhêk: Lhumudrel akkurê ibru [To Index]

LHUMUDREL. Loda lelê chî teket shkrivê. Ihmêti nhêbor khurinî a habele zêl--

P. Nhêbor khurini, habelê ma.

L. Dinî khurinî a kurseleta dichi noz Alôdelach zêl.

P. Dini khurini, kurseletê ma.

L. E dhunî ôkhekî a ibru zêl.

P. Dhuni ôkheki, ibru ma.

L. Il habel fâ ish lanele adirê ku bôrd flavê, e fâ melhu domerê zêl, lê ful tô lelê pêza?

P. Kêtô lê fêti et ibru klât? Kê kêsht ibro ê shkê? Ridibel kokue, sîk eshtê thizi kêbrizê e kolaodê sachêi, ku eli nhêrulo shkebûr.

L. Ê ibor Gêremo.

P. Ibor kêti shkê?

L. Gêremo kêshtorîno zêl.

P. Sup ked zaa impiôn kêshtorîni Barakhinei meli shkê?

L. Ê kadhin meli lême, pidi. Shkrivû chî Gêrem ni im Barakhun pêza? A ilu kili fâ pedher Sua lême.

P. Kadhin meli ma! Sîk shpakh chî lê ûzê ibrê Kadhinu shkebûr!

L. Pidhiê meli foli. Klâtandu sêth komônê tô grima.

P. Sîk sêth plerê sîmeli. Chî redêlu ihmêta kôn ibroi tôshkê-- moru leri laodê shpakhê kêtô? Ak echilê shkrivê Kadhinu, ku chî lê eshtê medh klât! Kêt subrê shkê? Hashk chî lê laodê krêshki khuvî e sitele shkebûr!

L. Pidi eri, sîk kudiz. Ê prôshkalech, nikt ôtrê, dichi shkiredêi hibrelich, ked shkadrant el shkizant sîk zaa lelôn zêl êr ôterêli sîk zaa shtôn...

P. Sîk sêth shtanmê klât. Ê mankel eri, tô hashk-- sîk sâ êk ihmorêl. Sê zôdek midrê leriê, lê sêth komônê ku rêmant. Zeufol eza ma. Achupuu trator. Zêtê laodâ foka felâ klâtandula, e laoda farki shkeî kudekî ma.

L. Achel leri, pidi, sîk thiba sîmeli sêth morê zêl.

P. Achupuâ trator ma. Sîk laodâ tô etfetê ma. Kêshtorîni klât!

PIDI faichi.

L. Bunori somoch hozdi! Poche shpakhi il nom Gêremo pêza? Sû nomê nhê rizundula ridibelech ku-- ku Benhêk, saledhir kalatel foli. Âl khor laodâ manôdê moru êrât hozdi! E sêth pavôndê a nhê rhukh kedi sîk laodâ ôtera nikt, e kêt shkri kedi, tot epê ashkol rêth ôn parêi chî ibor el adlelek sî dêna zaa oîn, kadhin meli el ôtro rhono meli kherof! Zêth fut chî kêshtor dhirtê radu, ak lê, Gêrem, sê sêth chidêl in klerh zêl!

Benhêk: Lhumudrel buys a book [To Index]

FATHER. I gave you fourteen gold pieces last month, daughter. How did you spend them?

LHUMUDREL. Let's see if I remember. I spent 9 khurin on a dress--

F. 9 khurin , dress.

L. 3 khurin on a candlestick for Alôdel's wedding.

F. 3 khurin, candlestick.

L. And 2 ôkhek on a book.

F. 2 ôkhek, book.

L. The dress was blue linen with a yellow border, and very pretty, do you want to see it?

F. What's this about a book? What sort of a book is it? Some silly comedy, I suppose, and not something edifying and suitable for women, like a saint's life.

L. It's a book by Genremos.

F. A book by who?

L. Genremos, the philosopher.

F. Since when are they printing philosophers in Barakhinei?

L. Oh, it's in Caďinor, father. Did you know Genremos was born in Barakhún? In those days it was the province of Su:as, of course.

F. In Caďinor! Don't tell me you can read Caďinor!

L. Only a little. The priest helps me work it out.

F. I don't like this at all. For a young woman to be spending money on books is bad enough-- what is your husband going to say? But to be trying to learn Caďinor, as if you were a boy! What next? I suppose you're going to grow balls and a beard!

L. Oh father, don't be upset. It's only a diversion for the winter afternoons, when there's no riding or shooting and people don't come visiting...

F. Well, I won't have it. It's my fault, I suppose-- I haven't married you off. You're a comfort to your mother, you help me with the accounts. Selfish of us. Put it off too long. Tomorrow I'll send for your uncle the priest, and we'll make up for lost time.

L. Please, father, I'm not in any hurry to get married.

F. I've put it off too long indeed. I won't discuss it. Philosophers!(Leaves.)

L. Oh, cruel fate! Why did I mention the name of Genremos? If I had named some writer of comedies, like-- like Benhêk, I would have just received a scolding. Now I am to receive a husband as well! And be carted off to some castle where I don't know anyone, and who knows where, perhaps so far up in the mountains they've never heard of a book or a play, in Caďinor or any other language! Philosophy is supposed to open the mind, but you, Genremos, you have closed me up in a trap!

Comparison with Verdurian [To Index]

Bunori somoch hozdi! Poche shpakhi il nom Gêremo pêza?
Samiosë Bunori! Prokio pavetnai so nom Žendromei?

Sû nomê nhê rizundula ridibelech ku-- ku Benhêk, saledhir kalatel foli.
Esli nomnai ti-crivece ridibodëi, com-- com Benëcan, santelece et ascele.

Âl khor laodâ manôdê moru êrât hozdi!
Nun tu sen dome otál maris!

E sêth pavôndê a nhê rhukh kedi sîk laodâ ôtera nikt, e kêt shkri kedi,
Er tu et nasitme ti-řükán ktë řo otermai nikto, er ke šri ktë,

tot epê ashkol rêth ôn parêi chî ibor el adlelek sî dêna zaa oîn,
eššane otal ret im parnen dy rho šrifcu nikagdá kio e ivro iy ralinë,

kadhin meli el ôtro rhono meli kherof!
im caďinán iy nibán otren řonán!

Zêth fut chî kêshtor dhirtê radu, ak lê, Gêrem, sê sêth chidêl in klerh zêl!
Zet ditave dy soa ripriroda tun uve so razum, ac le, Žendrom, ya et cüzre im áiočak!

It's worth noting that there are a good many more cognates than is apparent from this sample, but they are obscured by idiom and semantic change. The Barakhinei future (laodâ ôtera 'I'm going to know') would be understood in Verdurian, for instance, since a similar construction is used in Ctésifon (lädai oteran), and there is a Verdurian cognate to kêshtor 'philosophy'-- kestora-- but it is now limited to only part of the field, what we would call natural philosophy.

On the other hand, somoch and samiose 'cruel' are not cognates; the Barakhinei word derives from the name of the Somoyi, the nearest barbarians and former masters of the mountain realm; while the Verdurian word means 'merciless' (sam iosun).

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